How trauma affects memory and how this impacts the individual’s recovery, exploring better treatment options for memory impairment from trauma
I wrote this essay in my first year of my psychology degree (20023-2026), for the brain, behaviour and cognition module. Trauma is a topic that is close to my heart.
Please do not plagiarise my work.
Human-written, AI-free!
How trauma affects memory and how this impacts the individual’s recovery, exploring better treatment options for memory impairment from trauma.
The purpose of the essay is to discuss the topic of trauma and memory, more specifically, what can be done to aid individuals’ recovery. The definition of trauma ‘refers to the way some distressing events are so extreme or intense that they overwhelm a person’s ability to cope, resulting in lasting negative impact’ (UKTC, 2024). Generally, these events are outside the individual’s control and can range from a variety of things which can either be witnessed or happen to people. Resulting in adaptations in the brain’s structure and function, causing cognitive and emotional problems. These distressing conditions can cause a delayed effect or have an enduring overall effect for the individual, which can lead to mental health difficulties. Meanwhile, complex trauma refers to multiple traumatic experiences, commonly in childhood, that are chronic and repeated, affecting children’s development, which can cause an acute impact (UKTC, 2024).
The response to trauma can be significant for the individual, ranging from multiple negative health implications. These decreased quality of life include, but are not limited to: Post Traumatic Stress Disorder(PTSD), mood and anxiety disorders, impulse control disorders, addictive personalities and substance misuse, eating disorders, and personality disorders. All of which have a range of symptoms and effects, like physical conditions (CSAT, 2014).
One aspect that can be affected by trauma is memory. Memory is formed from a complex system made up of independent functions that is unconscious for the individual. Memory processing is composed of three main systems: the semantic, episodic and procedural, all of which work in various areas of the Central Nervous System (Van Der Kolk et al.).
This essay will concentrate on Episodic memory, which is combined with a person’s personal autobiographic and emotional experiences. Including the procedural memory, which allows for everyday tasks and living (Van Der Kolk et al.).
How trauma affects memory
Traumatic memories, unfortunately, have been a controversial topic in psychiatry and their reliability, especially in eyewitness testimony (Tochukwu, 2024). Controversies appear after results from various studies derived from ‘flashbulb memories’ of culturally significant events. Neisser & Harsch report that these memories have some distortion and fragmentation over time, with recall being altered over the years. It can be argued that these events are unimportant and differ from personal traumatic events. For instance, a study by Yuille and Cutshall found that witnessing profound traumas leads to ‘detailed, accurate and persistent memories’ that are easily recalled and lack regression over time, because they are impactful for the individual. (Bessel, 2002) Evidently, Howe (1998) highlights that memory works differently for mundane everyday occurrences versus emotionally traumatic events, due to peripheral memories being forgotten, whilst central details get remembered, because emotional information is more likely to be recalled than less significant aspects of life (Toth & Cicchetti, 1998). Consequently, a person’s own trauma can be remembered, leading to truthful recounts, which should be considered foremost after a deeply personal traumatic experience, rather than insinuating misinformation in eyewitness testimonies (Pedro & Goodman, 2008).
Another debate is children’s comprehension towards trauma. Schacter (1994) states that it’s vital to acknowledge the individual’s neurobiological development during the time of the trauma. Consequently, Eisen & Goodman (1998) declare that the understanding that the brain’s structure, information processing skills, alongside the encoding, storage, organisation, and recall of memories differ in people. However, Goodman et al. (1994) evidence concludes that ‘Children’s memories can be quite accurate’ (Toth & Cicchetti, 1998). It’s important not to discredit children; their trauma can shape their future if not treated correctly with their developing brain, which can lead to needing advanced treatment as adults, causing additional medical costs.
A further argument is that memory impairment and amnesia have been widely documented in trauma victims, especially in children who have less cognitive mental functioning and the ability to understand situations. Additionally, traumatic adults have difficulty remembering not only autobiographical memories, but also cultural distinct memories and everyday life. This lack of reconstruction causes dissociation in reality. Subsequently, emotions and stimuli can trigger memories, causing a negative impact (PTSD). Research also shows that the younger a person is when affected by trauma, the more prolonged and substantial amnesia for the individual, with childhood sexual abuse being prevalent(Bessel, 2002). It is therefore important to acknowledge how distressing it may be for the individual to have memory difficulties for their daily living after encountering trauma and include this in their recovery plan, which maybe under looked.
An equally significant aspect is that the Diagnostic Statistical Manual (DSM) identifies that trauma can lead to both, or either, graphic retention and failure to remember events, whilst others get attached to the mind. Thus, traumatic memories could be encoded differently from everyday events(Bessel, 2002). Similarly, Toth & Cicchetti emphasise whether traumatic memories are etched within the mind, enhancing the memory, or the stress damages the recall, and changes the brain’s structure and function over time, being detrimental for the individual. Furthermore, Christianson & Lindholm (1998) indicate that this is an evolutionary process of survival, to remember danger, to avoid it and protect oneself by removing it from the direct consciousness (Toth & Cicchetti, 1998).
Thus, each individual will have a different lived experience after experiencing trauma; some may have PTSD, others significant memory impairment, or vivid memory, or the person suffers complete depersonalization. Therefore, each individual needs a comprehensive recovery plan, distinct to them. The quicker the assessment and treatment are given after the trauma, helping the healing process for the individual. In hindsight, advanced intake screenings should allow better understanding of the patient’s needs, and treatment options for successful long term recovery, which will overall be more cost-effective.
Van Der Kolk emphasises that trauma results in fragmented memories due to the profound emotional stimulation disturbing the central nervous system. This dissociation, which protects the individual’s linguistic ability, is overridden by somatic experiences. Eye Movement Desensitisation and Reprocessing (EMDR) therapy can increase activation of the right cingulate and the prefrontal cortex, and improve brain function, overriding limbic sensory structures. This can allow the individual to distinguish between traumatic reminders and their existing life experience (Van Der Kolk et al., 1997). EDMR therapycould be introduced as a core treatment option for trauma survivors with its positive and successful results, especially for individuals with PTSD. In the UK, through the National Health Service (NHS), Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) is the initial recommendation to patients. (Fenn, 2013) EDMR may be better suited to rework the brain’s structure and prevent future relapse, creating a more long term cost effective treatment option.
One approach for the treatment of cognitive impairment after traumatic brain injury is by medication teamed with cognitive rehabilitation therapies. Arciniegas et al. (2002) suggest that psychostimulants, including dopamine inhibitors, can improve patients’ information processing speed and improve executive functioning in memory-impaired individuals after trauma. Whilst Tricyclic antidepressants should be avoided, due to the anticholinergic and antihistaminergic effects that impair cognitive functioning. Therefore, memory training can be introduced with education and psychotherapy for treating individuals. (Arciniegas, B. D., et al., 2002).
This could be a crucial treatment for individuals suffering from daily cognitive impairment and memory difficulties after trauma, which can be distressing for the individuals. Especially if traditional speaking therapies have not aided their recovery, such as counselling or CBT. Furthering medication as a treatment, more recent research conducted by K. Alzoubi (2018) claims that Pentoxifylline prevents post traumatic stress disorder-induced memory impairments. This antioxidant adjusts and normalises oxidative stress biomarkers, epigenetics and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in the hippocampus (K. Alzoubi, 2018). For patients who have been admitted directly after a traumatic event, Pentoxifylline could be administered to help victims avoid suffering from PTSD, providing an overall improved quality of life. However, this could only work if patient come forward and are willing to be treated for their trauma, and have a significant trauma that could cause PTSD, such as sexual assault.
In recent research, Mary et al (2020) discuss creating resilience after trauma by memory suppression, which can be a positive adjustment after trauma. Current treatment for traumatised individuals in clinical settings involves re-exposure to trauma to manage it. However, this could be limited if the person has a compromised capacity and diminished brain connectivity in the prefrontal cortex, moreover PSTD. That being said, suppression can also be ineffective if memories are deeply powerful and impactful for the individual, or the person displays ‘poor inhibitory capacities’ to disrupt the memories. However, this can be dealt with by strengthening coping mechanisms, and traumatic remnants have been reprocessed by the hippocampus, as well as representations contextualised in exposure therapy sessions. By removing the unwanted memories from the conscious mind can influence recovery for individuals (Mary et al., 2020). This option could be beneficial for deeply traumatised individuals who just want to forget their past and move on; suppression may support them. However, this is only applicable to those who are ready for this treatment and further along their recovery journey.
In conclusion, although there has been research over the years concerning the effects of trauma. Unfortunately, many patients still struggle with their memories and memory impairment; thus, further research and treatment options should be explored to strengthen the knowledge of treating individuals with cognitive memory impairment caused by trauma, especially long-term effects and improving memory loss for individuals’ daily living. This could significantly improve patients’ quality of life, which every person deserves.
References:
Arciniegas, D.B., Held, K. & Wagner, P. (2002). Cognitive impairment following traumatic brain injury. Curr Treat Options Neurol 4, 43–57. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11940-002-0004-6
Bessel A. Van Der Kolk. (2002). Trauma and Memory. Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 52(S1), s52-s64. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1440-1819.1998.0520s5S97.x
Centre for Substance Abuse Treatment (CSAT). (2014). Trauma-Informed Care in Behavioural Health Services: A review of literature. 57(1) https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK207192/
Fenn. K., & Byrne. M. (2013). The Key principles of Cognitive Behavioural therapy. InnovAiT. 6(9), 579-585. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1755738012471029
Mary, A., Dayan, J., Leone, G., Postel, C., Fraisse, F., Malle, C., Vallée, T., Klein-Peschanski, C., Viader, F., De la Sayette, V., Peschanski, D., Eustache, F., Gagnepain, P., (2020). Resilience after trauma: The role of memory suppression. Science, 367. DOI:10.1126/science.aay8477
Karem H. Alzoubi, Omar F. Khabour, Mohammed Ahmed. (2018). Pentoxifylline prevents post-traumatic stress disorder-induced memory impairment. Brain Research Bulletin, 139, 263-268. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainresbull.2018.03.009
Tochukwu. O. (2024, February 20) Week 4: Forensic psychology: Eyewitness testimonies [PowerPoint slides] http://Blackboard.lincoln.ac.uk
Toth, L. S., & Cicchetti, D., (1998). Remembering, forgetting, and the effects of trauma on memory: A developmental psychopathology perspective. Developmental and psychopathology. 10, 589-605. http://doi.org.10.1017/so95457948001771
Pedro. M. Paz-Alonso & Gail S. Goodman (2008). Trauma and memory: Effects of post-event misinformation, retrieval order, and retention interval, Memory, 16:1, 58-75, DOI: 10.1080/09658210701363146
UK Trauma Council. (2024, May 3). Trauma. https://uktraumacouncil.org/trauma/trauma
Van Der Kolk, A B., Burbridge, A J., and Suzuki, J. (1997). The psychobiology of traumatic memory. Clinical implications of neuroimaging studies. 21;821:99-113. http://doi: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1997.tb48272.x.
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